Eskimos, Reindeer, and Land

The following report is based on an interdisciplinary research study undertaken to investigate the social, economic, and cultural aspects of reindeer herding in northwestern Alaska. The primary purpose of the research project was to gather data on the past and present reindeer herding practices of the region, but also to seek information on herding and land uses, the future potential of this essentially Native industry, and its impacts on the people and economy of the area.National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, and carried out by staff of the University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Wild and semi-domesticated reindeer in Russia: status, population dynamics and trends under the present social and economic conditions

At present (in 1999) there are approximately 1.5 million semi-domesticated and 1.3 million wild reindeer in Russia. The co-existence of these two forms remains a major problem. Reindeer herding has declined while the number of wild reindeer has increased during the last 10 years. The main causes of these changes are social and economic. The 1960s and 1970s were characterised by a deliberate attempt to eradicate the nomadic way of life of reindeer herders. It was relatively easy to introduce public (kolkhoz or sovkhoz) reindeer herding in the Nenets, Chukchi and Komi-Izhem areas where large-scale reindeer herding was typical and, as a result, there were almost 1 million reindeer in collectives in the extreme north-eastern part of the USSR. At the same time reindeer herding deteriorated among the Khanty, Mansi, Evenk, Even, Selkup peoples. Perestroika in the 1990s resulted in the formation of a market economy. Collective reindeer herding declined and the number of semi-domesticated reindeer decreased during a period of gradual return to private ownership of reindeer. The largest region of reindeer herding is now the Nenets tegion in the north-west of Russia. Successful sympatric existence of wild and semi-domesticated reindeer is not possible. The Taimyr wild reindeer population numbers about 500-600 000 reindeer. From 1971 to 1981 not less than 700 000 reindeer in this population were shot. Ecological and economic control over them has now been lost. There are approximately 200 000 animals in Yakutia. The number of wild reindeer here has grown following the decline of reindeer husbandry. Yakut and Even reindeer herders believe that the decline has been due to wild reindeer drawing semi-domesticated teindeer away. At present 13 aboriginal peoples in northern Russia engage in reindeer herding. Five former reindeer herding peoples have given up herding but thete are signs of improvement in the situation among those peoples which have retained reindeer herding culture following the gradual restoration of private ownership of reindeer. In the 20 regions where only a few wild reindeer remain hunting should be prohibited and measures should be taken for protecting and restoring the populations. There are approximately 6000 reindeer on Novaya Zemlya; a further 6000 animals live on the Novosibirsk islands. The Red Data Book of Russia should include rare and disappearing populations both on the periphery of the species' distribution and inside it to preserve and restore the species and to conserve its genetic diversity

Cultural activity and market enterprise: a circumpolar comparison of reindeer herding communities at the end of the 20th century

Thesis (Ph.D.) University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2003Reindeer herding throughout the circumpolar North is in decline. Investigating this decline, this dissertation takes a comparative approach with a focus on four case studies: the Chukchi of Chukotskii Peninsula, the Iñupiat of the Seward Peninsula, the Saami of the Kola Peninsula, and the Saami of Finnmark. Because various rates and types of decline are occurring in these different cases, a comparative method leads to a systematic analysis of how patterns develop in the practice of contemporary reindeer herding, both locally and globally. Comparing and contrasting the trajectories of declines in reindeer herding identifies and explains the dimensions of specific local-global processes, and situates them in wider contexts. These dimensions include economic incompatibilities, ecological stresses, and power inequities. By focusing on changes in reindeer herding over the last decade, this study reveals the effects of the incorporation of reindeer herding into the global economy, which is heavily dependent on existing infrastructure. This study also demonstrates the social position of reindeer herders and the cultural meaning of reindeer herding to the herders themselves. The willingness of regional and national governments to subsidize herding, and to ensure its survival through consistent access to pastures, is critically important to the success of reindeer herding as a productive agricultural enterprise. Furthermore, changing ecological factors potentially threaten reindeer herding as a subsistence activity. The consequences of decline, then, are explained through the identification of decline-inducing factors, such as ecological change, political vagaries, and the inappropriateness of reindeer herding as a capital-based enterprise under existing conditions of market and transportation infrastructural development

Are we facing new health challenges and diseases in reindeer in Fennoscandia?

A large number of semi-domesticated reindeer is lost every year. Predators are the single most important factor for these losses, whereas restrictions on food availability some years also may cause high mortality. In the past, reindeer herding was challenged by severe infectious diseases, killing hundreds and thousands of animals, and having huge economic and social impact on reindeer herding in Fennoscandia. The general zoo-sanitary situation in Fennoscandia is very favourable for the time being, but reindeer herding is sometimes challenged by disease outbreaks, and diseases play an important role for survival and fitness of reindeer. Reindeer herding is also facing changes and challenges, which also may impact reindeer health and the disease status. Introduction of infectious agents not commonly present in the reindeer population may take place through import of animals, as well as by contact between reindeer, livestock and wildlife. Further, changes in the herding, such as increased feeding, transport, size of herds, animal density and stress load on the animals, may affect the animals ability to cope with infectious diseases. Also changes in weather conditions and climate, such as increased precipitation and mean temperature, may over time lead to restricted availability of pastures, changes in vegetation and changed conditions for parasites and insect vectors. These changes might be especially important for the reproductive success, including fitness of the calves during their first winter. To be able to cope with these changes and their potential impact on reindeer health, increased efforts should be made to gather reference data on health and disease parameters from the different reindeer herding districts, along with epidemiological risk factor analysis. This would increase the ability for the reindeer herding to cope with changes and to continue to produce quality meat products for the market

Reindeer herding and environmental change in the Oymyakon District, Sakha Republic

The aim of this study is to assess the influence of environmental change on reindeer herding in the Oymyakon District in the eastern part of the Sakha Republic. To investigate environmental change and its influence on reindeer herding, semi-structured interviews were conducted at two villages in the Oymyakon District, from February 24th to March 8th, 2013. As a result of the interview, meteorological, topographical, and ecological changes and their influence on general livelihood were evaluated by local residents to a greater or lesser degree. Part of the climatic changes felt by local residents was supported meteorological data set. Generally speaking, local reindeer herders and a manager of reindeer herding enterprise did not think these climatic, topographical and biological impacts were serious problems for reindeer herding. More serious problems, in their consideration, were social and economic difficulties. Judging from these results and the fluctuation of the number of domestic reindeer, even though meteorological variables are gradually changing, serious environmental changes have not generally been noted by local residents as yet. It can be concluded that the environmental changes do not appear to have exerted intense harmful influences on reindeer herding in Oymyakon District so far

Circular 74

In 1985, members of the Applied Reindeer Research Project at the University of Alaska Fairbanks obtained and reviewed a Scandinavian instructional video1 on reindeer herding in Norway. This video described a structure that was developed and used by the Scandinavian reindeer industry to prevent injuries during corralling by segregating fawns from adults. The following is a description of how the fawn separator is built, how it works, and its current use in western Alaska

Relations between man and reindeer – traces of reindeer herding

The transition from hunting and fishing to reindeer herding is one of the most important questions related to early Sami culture. Artifacts indicative of reindeer herding are very unusual as archaeological finds. The material remains of reindeer herding consist mainly of organic material, which is very sparsely preserved in the soil. Changes in settlement patterns and increasing frequencies of reindeer bones at dwelling sites have been used as indicators. However, the osteological reference material does not allow separating domesticated and wild reindeer. Intrasite patterns related to the handling of reindeer bones may provide new information. This can be combined with a palaeobotanic survey of the impact of changing relations between man and reindeer on vegetation. This article presents new results from excavations in the mountain ridge of northern Sweden and discusses them in relation to more large-scale changes in socioeconomic relations

Gender Roles of Indigenous Women Reindeer Herders in Transition with Particular Reference to the Arctic Siberian Tundra Areas: Challenges of Social (In)Security

The changing role of women in the traditional Indigenous communities of the Russian Arctic in the 21st century is a rarely studied phenomenon. However, this is an important period of significant strengthening of their civil, political and social rights compared to the 18th to 19th centuries, when gender inequalities and strict subordination of women limited their choices. Now, their voices can be heard: they can participate in political life and lobby for their rights to regional and federal authorities. However, some social insecurities still remain for women reindeer herders. During the last decade, gender asymmetries concerning lifestyle, educational level and marital behaviour have intensified and resulted in increasing emigration of women from the tundra as they have chosen to abandon their traditional lifestyles and move to urban areas. This chapter analyses the changing position of women in traditional reindeer herding societies and whether these transformations have improved women’s social security, reduced gender inequality and increased social justice. To increase the social security of women reindeer herders, the authors recommend encouraging these women to apply for official self-employment (samozanjatyj) status (special tax regime with a tax on professional income), supporting cooperative forms of reindeer herding husbandry that employ women reindeer herders, encouraging the semi-nomadic lifestyles of Indigenous women, developing facilities in settlements for processing reindeer herding products that are managed by reindeer herders’ families, organising production cooperatives for reindeer herders to develop facilities for deep processing of reindeer products and increasing the profitability of reindeer herding

Range expansion and reproduction of the ectoparasitic deer ked (Lipoptena cervi) in its novel host, the Arctic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), in Finland

The deer ked (Lipoptena cervi) is a harmful ectoparasite that emerged in the reindeer herding area of Finland in 2006. To understand the current range and the intensity of infestations on its novel reindeer host, we studied deer ked pupae collected from reindeer and moose bedding sites and conducted a questionnaire survey among the managers of 18 reindeer herding cooperatives in the southern part of the reindeer herding area. Our study confirmed that the deer ked can survive and successfully reproduce on reindeer through winter and that flying deer keds had been observed in reindeer wintering areas during several autumns in twelve cooperatives. The pupae originating from reindeer were smaller and showed lower hatching rates than the pupae from moose. The present results indicate that the range of the deer ked infestations on reindeer in Finland expanded during the recent 5 years, now reaching 14 cooperatives and bordering an area south of approximately 66 degrees N 25 degrees E in the west and 65 degrees N 29 degrees E east.Peer reviewe

Brown bear predation on semi-domesticated reindeer and depredation compensations

The recovery and conservation of large carnivores can negatively impact the economy of traditional pastoralist societies, including indigenous reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) herding communities. Quantifying the magnitude of predation on livestock is critical to evaluating governmental carnivore compensation schemes. We collaborated with two Sami herding communities in northern Sweden (2010-2012) to examine brown bear (Ursus arctos) predation patterns on semi-domesticated reindeer and quantify the economic impact of bear predation. Predation patterns were estimated by following 21 GPS proximity-collared bears and similar to 2500 transmitter-collared female reindeer during calving season. We calculated economic impact by multiplying the monetary value of reindeer by the expected number lost to bears. On average, bears killed 10.2 [8.6, 11.5] calves per bear, accounting for 39-62% of all calf mortality, while few adult reindeer were killed. Bear kill rates increased with time spent in the calving area, and varied widely by individual and reproductive status, e.g., females with cubs-of-the-year did not kill calves. Kill intervals increased over the parturition season, and were larger for sub-adults than adults. The mean reindeer calf predation rate was 16-27%, which resulted in an annual loss between similar to(sic)50,000 and similar to(sic)62,000 per herding group. Current compensation schemes for herding communities in Sweden are calculated as a fixed rate based on herding community land-area. The herding groups in our study were reimbursed for similar to 2% of realized monetary loss. Compensation schemes based on herding community area, rather than realized predation patterns, may be less effective at mitigating the economic impact of living with large carnivores